Urbanization



Arron Smith Victoria Thomas 1B Urban Patterns notes: AP Human Ø Introduction : Urban geographers are concerned with two //where// questions on two scales. 1.They examine the global distribution of urban settlements. Having a high percentage of urban areas is a distinct characteristic of life in an MDC. 2.They are also interested in where activities and people are distributed in urban spaces. The major contrasts of physical, social and economics are between inner-city and suburban areas. More people are moving to suburbs because of the want to get away from big cities but having convenience of accessing them when needed. Ø Urbanization : The process by which the population of a city grows. Urbanization has two dimensions. 1.An increase in the number of people living in cities. 2.An increase in the percentage of people living in cities. Ø Increasing percent of people in cities : In MDC’s about three fourths of the population lives in urban areas. Compared to about two fifths in LDC’s. o The major exception to the global pattern is Latin America, where the urban percentage is closer to the number in MDC’s. o The need for fewer farm workers and more opportunity in urban areas is a main cause for increase urbanization. o The percent of urban residents is so high that most geographers refer to MDC’s as being fully urbanized, because they simply cannot get any more people converting to urban lifestyle. Ø Increasing number of people in cities : MDC’s have higher percentage of urban residents, but LDC’s have more of the very large urban settlements. Six of the ten most populous cities are located in LDC’s: Delhi, Jakarta, Mexico City, Mumbai, São Paulo, and Seoul. LA, New York City, Osaka, and Tokyo are the four in MDC’s. The raised urbanization in LDC’s is partly due to the very high increase rates in these states. Ø Defining Urban settlements : Is difficult because of disagreements between top states.

Ø Social differences between urban and rural settlements : Louis Wirth argued during the 1930’s that an urban dweller follows a different way of life from a rural dweller. Wirth defined a city as a permanent settlement that has three distinct characteristics: Large size, high population density, and socially heterogeneous people.

1. Large size :People in rural areas are more likely to know everyone in town. This makes their relationships with each other more personal. In urban areas the large size of the area along with its immense population makes your relationship with the people whom you see very impersonal.This causes large social differences in rural and urban areas. 2. High density : The only way for a person that a large number of people can be supported in a small area is through specialization. Each person in an urban settlement has a special role or performs a specific task to allow the complex urban system to run more smoothly. Competition is a fuel in limited areas with high density. Competition for territory is usually won by the stronger group. This behavior distinguishes an urban settlement from a rural one. 3. Social heterogeneity : The larger the settlement the greater the number of people. A person in an urban settlement has greater freedom to pursue an unusual occupation, sexual orientation, or cultural interest. In rural settlements unusual behaviors may be more easily noticed and scorned while in urban areas unusual behaviors will be more likely to be accepted and even expected by most of the population. People in large settlements are able to find people with the same interests as them because of the large population.

Ø Physical definitions of urban settlements : Urban areas today can be defined in three characteristics: legal boundaries, as continuously built-up areas, and as a functional area. 1. Legal definition of a city : an urban settlement that has been legally incorporated into an independent, self-governing unit. 2. Urbanized area :The central city and the surrounding built-up suburbs where the population exceeds 1,000 persons per square mile. 3. Metropolitan Statistical area :The United States Bureau of the census has created a method of measuring the functional area of a city, this is known as the metropolitan statistical area (MSA). An MSA includes the following: § An urbanized area with a population of at least 50,000. § The county within the city is located § Adjacent counties with a high population density and a large percentage of residents working in the central cities county (e.g. a county with a density of 25 persons per square mile and a least 50 percent working in central cities county.) 4. Overlapping metropolitan areas : In the northeastern united states, large metropolitan areas are so close together that they now form one continuous urban complex, extending from north of Boston to south of Washington, D.C. GeographerJean Gottmann named this region Metropolis, a Greek word meaning great city; others have called it the Boswash corridor.

Ø Three Models of urban structure : Sociologists, economists, and geographers have developed three models to help explain where different types of people tend to live in urban areas. The three models describing the internal social structure of the cities were all developed in Chicago, a city on a prairie. These three models are:

1. <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% yellow; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">Concentric Zone model : The concentric zone was the first to explain the distribution of different social groups in urban areas. It was created in 1923 by sociologist **__E. W. Burgess__**. According to the concentric zone model, a city grows outward from the central area in a series of concentric rings, like the growth rings of a tree. The precise size and with of the rings varies from city to city, but the same basic types of rings appear in all cities in the same order. The innermost of the five zones is the **CBD**, where nonresidential activities are concentrated. The CBD is surrounded by the second ring, **the zone in transition**, which contains industry and poorer quality housing. The zone also contains for single individuals. The third ring, **the zone of working-class homes**, contains modest older houses occupied by stable, working-class families. The fourth zone has fewer and more spacious houses for families of **middle-class**. Finally Burgess identified a **commuter’s zone**, beyond the continuous built-up area of the city.

2.

<span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% yellow; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;"> 2. Sector model : The sector model was developed in 1939 by land economist Homer Hoyt. According to Hoyt, the city develops in a series of sectors, not rings. Certain areas of a city are more attractive for various activities, originally because of an environmental factor or even by mere chance. As a city grows activities expand outward in a wedge, or sector, from the center. Once a district with high class housing is established, the most expensive new housing is built on the outer edge of that district, farther out from the center. The best housing is therefore found in a corridor extending from downtown to the outer edge of the city. Industrial and retailing activities develop in other sectors, usually along good transportation lines.

3. <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% yellow; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">Multiple Nuclei Model : Geographers C. D. Harris and E.L. Ullman developed the multiple nuclei model in 1945. According to the model, a city is a complex structure that includes more than one center around which activities revolve. Examples of these nodes include a port, neighborhood business center, university, airport, and park. The **multiple nuclei theory** states that some activities are attracted to particular nodes, whereas others try to avoid them. For example a university may attract well-educated residents, pizzerias, and bookstores, whereas an airport may attract hotels and warehouses. On the other hand, incompatible land-use activities will avoid clustering in the same locations. Heavy industry and high-class housing, for example, rarely exist in the same neighborhood.

Ø <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% lime; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">Geographic applications of the models : The three models help us understand where people with different social characteristics tend to live within an urban area. They can also explain why certain types of people live in particular places. The effectiveness of the models is determined by the amount of data available at the scale of individual neighborhoods. Urban areas in the Unites States are divided into **census tracts**, which contain approximately 5,000 residents and correspond where possible to neighborhood boundaries.

Ø <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% lime; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">Squatter settlements : are known by a variety of names including: barrios, barriadas, and favelas in Latin America, bidonvilles in North Africa, bustees in India, gecekondu in Turkey, kampongs in Malaysia, and barung-barong in the Philippines.Squatter settlements have few services, because neither the city nor the residents can afford them. These settlements usually lack schools, paved roads, telephones or sewers. Electricity may be stolen by running a wire from the nearest power line.

Ø <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% lime; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">Process of deterioration : Neighborhoods can shift from predominantly middle-class to lower income occupants within a few years. Middle class families move out of a neighborhood to newer housing farther from the center and sell or rent their house to lower income families.

o <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% aqua; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">Filtering : Large houses built by wealthy families in the nineteenth century are subdivided by absentee landlords into smaller dwellings for low-income families. This process of subdivision of houses and occupancy by successive waves of lower-income people is known as **filtering**. Landlords only rent out houses until the cost of the utilities are greater than the income of the resident. When this is not the case the landlord abandons the house so they do not lose any more money. This is the deterioration process. o <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% aqua; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">Redlining : Some banks engage in redlining- drawing lines on a map to identify areas in which they will refuse to loan money. As a result of redlining, families who try to fix up a house in these areas have difficulties borrowing money.

Ø <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% lime; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">Urban Renewal : Cities identify blighted inner-city neighborhoods, acquire the properties from private owners, relocate the residents and businesses, clear the site, and build new roads and utilities. The land is then turned over to private developers or public agencies, such as the board of education or the parks department, to construct new buildings or services.

Ø <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% lime; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">Public housing : Many substandard inner-city houses have been demolished and replaced by public housing. In the United States, public housing is reserved for low-income households, who must pay 30 percent of their income for rent. In the US public housing accounts for less than 2 percent of all dwellings.

Ø <span style="background: none repeat scroll 0% 0% lime; font-family: Calibri; font-size: 10pt; line-height: 115%;">Renovated housing : The process by which middle-class people move into deteriorated inner city neighborhoods and renovate the housing is known as **Gentrification**.

Inner city social problems :some inner city social problems include: 1. Underclass : Inner-city residents are referred to as a permanent underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of economic and social problems. They tend to suffer from relatively high unemployment rates, alcoholism, drug addiction, illiteracy, juvenile delinquency, and crime. Schools are constantly deteriorating and affordable housing is increasingly difficult to find. Health care and other important necessities are lacking in these underclass areas. 2. Lack of job skills : People in these under class areas are becoming less and less qualified for jobs in their area. This is due to poor education habits like not completing high school. This makes it difficult for them to find jobs. The jobs they used to be qualified for now require some skill with technology which these people do not receive. And the jobs that they are qualified for are being found in suburban areas instead of the urban areas that they live in. 3. Homeless : Homelessness is nearly impossible to keep track of. The National Coalition for the homeless and Urban Institute last estimated more than 3 million Americans are homeless today. Culture of poverty : Many mothers give birth to children into a culture of poverty. In many situations the mother has to choose between working to bring in a steady income and staying home to take care of their children. This is a result of “dead beat Dads.” Although the government would like these fathers to take care of their children, it is sometimes better for the family for the parents to stay separate so the mother can continue to receive welfare.

1. Crime : Many people in these areas of poverty turn to drug usage and selling. This makes arrests for drug use and gang related offenses more frequent in these areas. 2. Ethnic and racial segregation : Many neighborhoods are segregated to the East and West sides or North and South sides. Usually the people with more income will be on the “better” side of town that might be near a body of water or a hillside, while the lower income families live on the “crapy” part of town. This can explain trends in voting in certain areas. Inner-city economic problems : Some economic problems in the inner-city can cause lower quality of living for the residents of that area. To pay for necessities they have to cut down on trash clean ups and libraries. Annexation : the process of legally adding land area to a city. Until recently in the United States, as a city grew, they expanded by annexing peripheral land.

The Peripheral model : North American follows what Chauncey Harris (creator of the multiple nuclei model) calls the peripheral model. According to the peripheral model, an urban area consists of an inner-city surrounded by large suburban residential and business areas tied together by a beltway or ring road. Peripheral areas lack the severe physical, social, and economic problems of inner-city neighborhoods. But the periphery model points to the problems of sprawl and segregation that characterize many suburbs. Around the beltway are the nodes of consumer and business services, called edge cities. Edge cities originated as suburban residences for people who worked in the central city, and then shopping malls were built to be near the residents. Now edge cities contain manufacturing centers spread out over a single story for more efficient operations and office parts where producer services cluster.

Density gradient - the density change in an urban area. According to the density gradient, the number of houses per unit of land diminishes as distance from the center city increases. Sprawl - the progressive spread of development over the landscape. Rush hour - is the four consecutive 15-minute periods that have the heaviest traffic. Council of government – a cooperative agency consisting of representatives of the various local governments in the region. Smart growth – Legislation and regulations to limit suburban sprawl and preserve farmland.


 * Model || Latin American || Peripheral || LDC ||
 * Developed by: || Larry R. Ford || Chauncey Harris || Larry R. Ford ||
 * Background Info: || A new and improved model of Latin American city structure. || The nature of cities and urban Geography in the last half century. || The center of the city is more likely to have more top professions, whereas many of the outer areas are inhabited by lower income households. ||
 * Characteristics: || Model of a Latin American city. Wealthy people live in the inner city and a sector extending along a commercial spine. || An urban area consists of an inner-city surrounded by large suburban residential and business areas tied together by a beltway or ring road. || Many of the peripheral areas consist of massive public housing projects built to accommodate low income people whose dilapidate inner-city row houses were demolished during the 1940s and 1950s ||
 * Drawbacks: || Cannot be applied to every Latin American city. || Cannot be applied to cities that do not meet the requirements. || This model is not accurate for every LDC. ||
 * Examples: || Mexico city, Zócalo, and Tlatoloco. || Central city, suburban residential area, shopping malls, industrial district, office park, service center, airport complex, and combined employment and shopping center. || South Africa, Latin America, and many others. ||

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urbanization is strongly associated with economic success: • All the richest nations are highly urbanized; all the poorest nations are predominantly rural • All the most successful economies in Africa, Asia and Latin America are urbanizing rapidly • Almost all the least successful economies are not urbanizing or urbanizing very slowly Urbanization also brings • very strong developmental advantages – for instance for lowering unit costs of providing piped water, sewers, drains, health care, education, emergency services...... • some strong environmental advantages – for keeping down energy use, for cutting wastes, for controlling pollution, for cutting greenhouse emissions.

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 * Urbanization follows economic growth.
 * People concentrate in urban areas because this is where new investment and new jobs are created.
 * So in many ways, urbanization is a reflection of economic success.
 * It reflects the increasing proportion of GDP generated by industry and services – and the increasing proportion of the labour force working in industry and services.

Why does urbanization occur?????
**Summary:** Provides an investigation into the economic, social, political and <span class="IL_SPAN" style="color: #800080;">environmental factors causing urbanization. Urbanisation is the process which has led to an increasing proportion of a country's population living within urban areas. It is impossible to say exactly when the process began, but in Britain it was around the time of <span class="IL_LINK_STYLE" style="border-bottom: #67ad06 1px solid; color: #67ad06; font-family: Times New Roman; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400;">__the industrial revolution__. <span class="IL_SPAN" style="color: #800080;">Many people moved from rural to urban areas in search of regular employment. The MEDC's <span class="IL_LINK_STYLE" style="border-bottom: #67ad06 1px solid; color: #67ad06; font-family: Times New Roman; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400;">__around the world__ are all urbanised now, with annual growth rates of urbanisation still increasing, but sustainably. LEDC's however are still rapidly urbanising. In this essay I am going to look at all the factors that cause urbanisation and evaluate why it is occurring. The economic reasons behind urbanisation are mainly decided by industry. Industry is generally located in urban areas. Any industry needs to be close to other businesses to <span class="IL_LINK_STYLE" style="border-bottom: #67ad06 1px solid; color: #67ad06; font-family: Times New Roman; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400;">__trade information__ and goods. Also any industry has a need for a very large workforce, which is provided for by the large population of the area. <span class="IL_SPAN" style="color: #800080;">The industrial revolution played a major part in urbanisation of MEDC's. Employment was provided for thousands and the revolution provided a <span class="IL_LINK_STYLE" style="border-bottom: #67ad06 1px solid; color: #67ad06; font-family: Times New Roman; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400;">__starting block__ for industry. Because industry started in urban areas it is much easier for other industries to set up in urban areas. It provides them with an advantage of being located near many other industries and services that are necessary. In LEDC's the economic reasons do include small industry and businesses but also the need for food and water. Urban areas provide many more services than rural areas and if the people of LEDC's could find work they would be able to buy food and water. In rural areas they would either have to produce their own food or have to travel quite a significant distance to get what they need. People begin to grow <span class="IL_LINK_STYLE" style="border-bottom: #67ad06 1px solid; color: #67ad06; font-family: Times New Roman; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400;">__tired__ of living in poverty and slaving over <span class="IL_LINK_STYLE" style="border-bottom: #67ad06 1px solid; color: #67ad06; font-family: Times New Roman; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400;">__a farm__ that isn't producing effectively. Politically urbanisation has created a centralisation of power in MEDC's. In general any main government base is in an urban area (usually the capital city). This works best for any government because this is where most things are going on in the country. The government has a major impact on what is going on around the country. In MEDC's 75% of the population lives in urban areas. It seems best for any government to see what is going on in the country and be close to its people. Similarly in LEDC's the government in charge would find it much easier to operate in a country if it was right in the main part where food and resources would be more readily available. Also the government would be able to see what was going on in the country and would find it easier to collect taxes and improve the country. The fact that the government is located in urban areas contributes to the migration factors because many people would move for the services and jobs that a government provides. <span class="IL_LINK_STYLE" style="border-bottom: #67ad06 1px solid; color: #67ad06; font-family: Times New Roman; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400;">__Environmental__ factors don't affect those living in MEDC's so much because they are generally rich enough to get hold of water, energy and food even if it isn't close because they can usually arrange a means of transport. However in LEDC's <span class="IL_SPAN" style="color: #800080;">environmental factors are extremely important, people are sometimes forced to leave rural areas because of the poverty that is often faced. Also droughts are quite common which can leave a family with no food or water. Putting this into consideration, people often migrate. Socially, there are many reasons for urbanisation. In MEDC's people are attracted to specialist services and leisure activities. While these are readily available in urban areas, they are much harder to come by in rural areas. Some people may find that they would prefer to live closer to the services than have the problem of transport. This would be backed up by the fact that <span class="IL_SPAN" style="color: #800080;">many people have jobs in urban areas and that people often think of the urban lifestyle as the modern way to live. The wealth of people in MEDC's must be taken into account. They are generally far wealthier than those living in LEDC's and people living in LEDC's are given far less choice about how they live. People in LEDC's often hear stories of a place they are migrating to which are often very misleading and turn out to be disappointing. Despite this, in an urban area water is less hard to come by, this combined with the promise of better healthcare and <span class="IL_LINK_STYLE" style="border-bottom: #67ad06 1px solid; color: #67ad06; font-family: Times New Roman; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400;">__employment opportunities__ are determining social factors. I think it would be impossible to decide on a category where all the most important reasons for urbanisation lied. Realistically the reasons are all related and all affect each other. For example it could be argued that the jobs in the city is an economic or social reason. However if the job is needed to feed a family who have suffered drought and a poor crop then it could be considered an <span class="IL_SPAN" style="color: #800080;">environmental reason. It is also impossible to pick the best category because LEDC's are very different to MEDC's which means that their people have very different needs. I feel that if I chose one category it would be over simplifying the process of urbanisation and why it occurs. A new process has begun to occur in some of the most developed countries in the world. Counter urbanisation is the process of people <span class="IL_LINK_STYLE" style="border-bottom: #67ad06 1px solid; color: #67ad06; font-family: Times New Roman; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400;">__moving out__ of the cities and back to rural areas. People consider the benefits of this to be lower levels of traffic, more living space and lower pollution levels. The cities in the most developed countries are becoming very cramped and some people decide the rural lifestyle is less stressed. This has caused a few sub-urbanised villages in rural areas. In the future I can see more urbanisation in LEDC's. I can see the sizes of cities increasing due to more and more people migrating from rural areas. LEDC's will continue to build their industry and cities with little or no consideration for the natural environment. I can see the trend of counter urbanisation continuing in MEDC's. The urban areas in MEDC's are becoming larger and more crowded. As the congestion and pollution increases in cities people will feel that a rural lifestyle is more relaxed. Despite the extortionate prices of housing in urban areas I can see the prices of rural housing increasing due to the counter urbanisation trend. I think that in the future a spacious <span class="IL_LINK_STYLE" style="border-bottom: #67ad06 1px solid; color: #67ad06; font-family: Times New Roman; font-style: normal; font-weight: 400;">__country house__ will be considered far more fashionable than a cramped city flat. Unfortunately if this process goes out of control it could mean damage to the environment due to the damage caused by people from urban areas used to a different lifestlye.


 * Urbanization: Jayy and Katie 2B**

This is the **Concentric Zone Model**. It was created by Ernest Burgess in 1925. The Central Business District is in the center surrounded by expanded rings. 1) CBD 2) Factory 3) Transition 4) Working Class 5) Residential 6) Commuter Burgess believed there was a correlation between the distance from CBD, and the wealth of the inhabited area wealthier families tended to live farther away. It has been critized saying it does not work well with the cities outside. It assumes an isotopic plain- even, unchanging landscape. The land may restrict growth of certain sectors.
 * Important Models:**[[image:http://rerevealed.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/01/burgess-zone-model.jpg width="363" height="286" align="left" caption="Concentric Zone Model"]]

This is the **Sector Model**. It was developed in 1939 by land economist Homer Hoyt. This Model states that cities develop in a series of sectors not rings.1) CBD 2) Factories/indutry 3) Low class residential 4) Middle class residential 5) High class residential Certain areas of city are more attractive for various activities the most expensive new housing is built on the outer edge of the city.

This is the **Multiple Nuclei Model**. It was developed by C.D Harris and E.L Ullman in 1945. It suggests that a city is a complex structure that includes more than one center around which activities revolve. Exapmles are : business center, university, and an airport, The theory states that some activities are attracted to particular nodes, wheras others avoid them. The university node attracts well-educated residents and bookstores while an airport may attract hotels and warehouses.

The three models help us understand where people with different social characteristics tend to live within an urban area. They also help to explain why certain types of people tend to live in particular places.

1) Delhi. 2) Jakarta. 3) Mexico City. 4) Mumbai (Bombay). 5) Sao Paulo. 6) Seoul.
 * Six of the ten most populous cities in least developed countries:**

1) Los Angeles. 2) New York. 3) Osaka. 4) Tokyo.
 * Four most populous cities in more developed countries:**

rbanization has been especially rapid in the Middle East. The regions largest urabn area is Cairo. It has an estimated 16 million inhabitants. Immigrants from the countryside were attracted to Cairo by service jobs created from investments by oil-rich neighboring countries. One-half of Cairo's late twentieth-century immigrants went to squatter settlements.

**Underclass:** Inner-city residents frequently are referred to as underclass because they are trapped in an unending cycle of economic and social problems. The underclass suffers from relatively high rates of unemployment, alcoholism, drug addiction, illiteracy, juvenile delinquency, and crime. Their schools are deteriorated, and affordable housing is difficult to find. Their neighborhoods lack adequate police and fire protection, shops, hospitals, clinics, or other healt-care facilities.

Several U.S states have taken strong steps in the past few years to curb sprawl, reduce traffic congestion, and reverse inner-city decline. **Public Transportation:** In larger cities, public transportation is better suited than motor vehicles to moving large numbers of people because each traveler takes up less space. Public Transportation is cheaper, less polluting, and more energy-efficient than the automobile.

Legislation and regulations to limit suburban sprawl and preserve farmland has been called smart growth. This was enacted in Maryland in 1998. The law prohibits the state from funding new highways and other projects that would extend suburban sprawl and destroy farmland.
 * Smart Growth:**

Social scientists can compare the distributions of characteristics and create an overall picture of where various types of people tend to live through **social area analysis.** London, Birmingham, and several other british cities are surrounded by greenbelts, or rings of open space.

The density change in an urban area is called the density gradient. Two changes have defected the density gradient in recent years: 1) The number of people living in the center has decreased. 2) The trend toward less density difference within urban areas. The number of people living in a necture of land has decreased in the central residential areas through population decline and abandonment of old housing. At the same time, density has increased on the periphery through construction of apartment and rowhouse projects and diffusion of suburbs across a larger area.
 * Density Gradient:**

//**Definitions:**// //**Urbanized Area**: The central city and the surrounding built up suburbs.// //**Metropolitan Statistical Area**: A method of measuring the functional area of a city.// //**Micropolitan Statistical Area**: Smaller urban areas between 10,000 and 50,000 inhabitants.// //**Census Tracts**: Urban areas in the United States are divied into census tracts. It contains approximately 5,000 residents and correspond where possible to neighborhood boundaries.// //**Squatter Settlements**: An area within a city in an LDC in which people illegally establish residencies on land they do not own or rent and erect homemade structures.// //**Filtering**: Process of subdivison of houses and ossupancy by successive waves of lower income people.// //**Redlining**: Drawing lines on a map to identify areas in which they will refuse to loan money.// //**Urban Renewal**: Cities identify blighted inner-city neighborhoods, acquire the properties from private owners, relocate the residents and businesses, clear the site, and build new roads and utilities.// //**Public Housing**: Reserved for low income households who must pay 30% of their income for rent.// //**Gentrification**: Process by which middle class people move into deteriorated inner-city neighborhoods and renovate the housing.// //**Underclass**: People in inner-city neighborhoods trapped in an unending cycle of economic and social problems.// //**Annexation**: Process of legally adding land area to a city.// //**Peripheral Model**: An urban area consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential and business areas ties together by a beltway or road.// //**Edge Cities**: Nodes of consumer and business services around the beltway.// //**Density Gradient**: Density change in an area.// //**Sprawl**: progressive spread of development over the landscape.// //**Greenbelts**: rings of open space.// //**Zoning Ordinances**: Developed in Europe and North America. They prevented the mixing of land uses within the same district.// //**Rush Hour**: peak hour.// //**Council of Government**: Cooperative agency consisting of representatives of the various local governments in the region.//

//Source: Rubenstein.//