Development

Development


 * Sources (because Debbie Lou requested them): Martha Sharma (obviously), Wikipedia, the Rubenstein book, and the Rubstein website.**


 * Vocabulary (2A - Keith & Josh)**

**Agricultural labor force** is the number of people who work in agriculture. This is important because a large value indicates that the country is likely an LDC dependent on agriculture, while a small value indicates that there are fewer people working in agriculture, meaning that the agriculture is more efficient.


 * Calorie consumption** as a percentage of daily requirement is an important index of development. People in MDCs generally consume more than 130% of their daily requirements, but most people in LDCs barely get enough to sustain themselves. The problem is worst in Africa, where most people do not eat enough.

The **Core-periphery model** describes the pattern of distribution of the MDCs and LDCs. When the earth is viewed from the North Pole, the MDCs are clustered near the center of the map while the LDCs are near the edges.


 * Cultural Convergence** is the change in culture that occurs as diffusion of ideas and technology increases. An example is the culture of LDCs becoming more like that of their former colonial power (an MDC).


 * Dependency theory** states that LDCs tend to have a higher dependency ratio, the ratio of the number of people under 15 or over 64 to the number in the labor force.


 * Development** is the improvement in material conditions of a place as a result of diffusion of technology and knowledge. This is important because it is a main goal for most of the planet’s regions and development will help solve many problems.


 * Energy consumption** is an index of development. MDCs tend to consume much more energy per capita than do LDCs. This will be important in the future because as LDCs begin to industrialize, there will be a great strain on the world’s energy supply.


 * Foreign direct investment** is investment in the economies of LDCs by transnational corporations based in MDCs. However, all countries are not recipients of this investment. Brazil, China and Mexico were the LDCs that received most of the investment.


 * Gender** is an important developmental factor. A great difference in development between the genders is found primarily in LDCs, especially in the Middle East. Differences exist primarily in income and in literacy rate.


 * Gross domestic product** is the total value of goods and services produced in a year in a given country. The value varies greatly between MDCs and LDCs and is one of the best indicators of development. Fast growth of GDP is a major goal of all countries.


 * Gross national product** is similar to GDP except that includes income that people earn abroad.

The **Human Development Index** is an aggregate index of development, which takes into account economic, social and demographic factors, using GDP, literacy and education, and life expectancy.


 * Levels of development** that countries are classified into include MDCs (more developed countries) and LDCs (less developed countries).


 * Measures of development** are used to distinguish LDCs from MDCs. They include GDP, literacy rate, life expectancy, caloric intake, etc.


 * Neocolonialism** refers to the economic control that MDCs are sometimes believed to have over LDCs. Through organizations such as the IMF, the MDCs are able to dictate precisely what LDCs economic policies are, or are able to use their economic subsidies to put LDCs industries out of business.

The **Physical Quality of Life** index is another development index. It is based on literacy rate, infant mortality rate, and life expectancy at age one.


 * Purchasing power parity** is an index of income related to GDP. Unlike GDP however, PPP takes into account price differences between countries. Usually goods in LDCs are priced lower, so this makes the difference between LDCs and MDCs less.


 * W.W. Rostow** developed the “Stages of Growth” model of economic development.

- Important because it helps to explain the differences between MDCs and LDCs.
 * Technology gap-** The difference in technologies used and/or developed in two companies, countries, ethnic groups, etc., where one is more advanced than the other.

- Important because it allows for knowledge to be utilized for various needs instead of being confined to a certain sector.
 * Technology transfer-** process by which existing knowledge, facilities, or capabilities developed under federal research and development funding are utilized to fulfill public and private needs

- Important because it is a classification to explain differences between the countries of the world.
 * Third World-** countries in the developing world independent of their political status (developing countries)

- Important because explains the power hierarchy in which powerful and wealthy "core" societies dominate and exploit weak and poor peripheral societies.
 * World Systems Theory-** refers to perspective that seeks to explain the dynamics of the “capitalist world economy” as a “total social system”

- Important because it provides an explanation as to the spatial distribution of urban areas.
 * Bid rent theory-** refers to how the price and demand on land changes as the distance towards the CBD increases

- Important because it allowed for goods to be produced at a rate comparable to the demand for many of those products, made for more efficient manufacturing industries.
 * Assembly line production/Fordism-** industrial arrangement of machines, equipment, and workers for continuous flow of work pieces in mass production operations, each movement of material is made as simple and short as possible

- Important because it can damage property and adversely affect the health of people, other animals, and plants.
 * Air pollution-** concentration of trace substances at a greater level than occurs in average air, human causes include mainly motor vehicles, industry, and power plants

- Important because
 * Agglomeration economies-** refers to benefits or advantages (savings, cost reductions, etc.) resulting from the spatial clustering of activities and/or people

- Important because it has damaged lakes, killing fish and plants.
 * Acid rain-** tiny droplets of sulfuric acid and nitric acid in the atmosphere that dissolve in water and return to Earth’s surface

- Important because it explains the development experience of Western countries and is a general model for many others.
 * “Stages of Growth” Model**- linear theory of development that developed countries go through a common pattern of structural change (1-Traditional Society, 2-Transitional Stage, 3-Take Off, 4-Drive to Maturity, 5-High Mass Consumption)

- Important because he developed the model that is frequently referred to.
 * Rostow, W. W.** - economist, developed the “Stages of Growth” model in the late 1950s

- Important because it is a large industry that is important in transportation, packaging and building and construction.
 * Aluminum industry-** U.S. companies are the largest single producer with plants in 35 states producing about $39.1 billion in products and exports. U.S. supply is comprised of three sources, primary, imports and recycled


 * (By Josh & Keith)**

In development geography, geographers study spatial patterns in development. They try to find by what characteristics they can measure development by looking at economic, political, and social factors. They seek to understand both the geographical causes and consequences of varying development. Studies compare MDCs. Additionally, variations within countries are looked at such as the differences between northern and southern Italy, the Mezzogiorno. Within development geography, sustainable development is also studied in an attempt to understand how to meet the needs of the present without compromising the needs of future generations to meet their own needs. Quantitative indicators Quantitative indicators are numerical indications of development.
 * Development geography ** is the study of the Earth’s geography with reference to the standard of living and quality of life of its human inhabitants. In this context, development is a process of change that affects people’s lives. It may involve an improvement in the quality of life as perceived by the people undergoing change. However, development is not always a positive process. Gunder Frank commented on the global economic forces that lead to the development of underdevelopment. This is covered in his dependency theory. Development geography is that branch of science, which deals with the study of the Earth’s lands with reference to the standard and quality of living, of its human inhabitants.

·  Economic indicators include GNP per capita, unemployment rates, energy consumption and percentage of GNP in primary industries. Of these, GNP per capita is the most used as it measures the value of all the goods and services produced in a country, excluding those produced by foreign companies, hence measuring the economic and industrial development of the country. However, using GNP per capita also has many problems. o  It does not take into account the distribution of the money which can often be extremely unequal as in the UAE where oil money has been collected by a rich elite and has not flowed to the bulk of the country. o  GNP does not measure whether the money produced is actually improving people’s lives and this is important because in many MEDCs where there are large increases in wealth over time but only small increases in happiness. o  The figure rarely takes into account the unofficial economy, which includes subsistence agriculture and cash-in-hand or unpaid work, which is often substantial in LEDCs. In LEDCs it is often too expensive to accurately collect this data and some governments intentionally or unintentionally release inaccurate figures. o  The figure is usually given in US dollars which due to changing currency exchange rates can distort the money’s true street value so it is often converted using purchasing power parity (PPP) in which the actual comparative purchasing power of the money in the country is calculated. ·  Social indications include access to clean water and sanitation (which indicate the level of infrastructure developed in the country) and adult literacy rate, measuring the resources the government has to meet the needs of the people. ·  Demographic indicators include the birth rate, death rate, & fertility rate, which indicate the level of industrialization o  Health indicators (a sub-factor of demographic indicators) include nutrition (calories per day, calories from protein, percentage of population with malnutrition), infant mortality and population per doctor, which indicate the availability of healthcare and sanitation facilities in a country. Composite or qualitative indicators combine several quantitative indicators into one figure and generally provide a more balanced view of a country. Usually they include one economic, one social and one demographic indicator.
 * Composite indicators **

·  The HDI (Human Development Index) is now the most widely used composite indicator. A number is calculated between 0 and 1 taking into account the most important measures: GNP per capita, the adult literacy rate, the school enrollment rate and life expectancy. It was started by the UN in 1990 to replace GNP as a more accurate way of measuring development. A HDI between 1 and 0.8 is considered high, 0.8 and 0.6 is considered medium and 0.6 to 0.4 is considered low.
 * Data Example **

·  Other composite measures include the PQLI (Physical Quality of Life Index) which was a precursor to the HDI which used infant mortality rate instead of GNP per capita and rated countries from 0 to 100. It was calculated by assigning each country a score of 0 to 100 for each indicator compared with other countries in the world. The average of these three numbers makes the PQLI of a country. ·  The HPI (Human Poverty Index) is used to calculate the percentage of people in a country who live in relative poverty. In order to better differentiate the number of people in abnormally poor living conditions the HPI-1 is used in developing countries, and the HPI-2 is used in developed countries. The HPI-1 is calculated based on the percentage of people not expected to survive to 40, the adult illiteracy rate, the percentage of people without access to safe water, health services and the percentage of children under 5 who are underweight. The HPI-2 is calculated based on the percentage of people who do not survive to 60, the adult functional illiteracy rate and the percentage of people living below 50% of median personal disposable income. ·  The GDI (Gender-related Development Index) measures gender equality in a country in terms of life expectancy, literacy rates, school attendance and income. Qualitative indicators include descriptions of living conditions and people’s quality of life. They are useful in analysing features that are not easily calculated or measured in numbers such as freedom, corruption or security, which are mainly non-material benefits.
 * ** HDI rank ** || ** Country **  || ** GDP per capita **
 * (PPP US$) (HDI) 2002** || ** Human development index **
 * (HDI) value 2002** ||
 * 3 || Australia || 28,260 || 0.946 ||
 * 72 || Brazil || 7,770 || 0.775 ||
 * 147 || Zimbabwe || 2,400 || 0.491 ||
 * Qualitative Indicators **

The updated view of the north-south divide. Blue includes G8 nations, developed / first world nations, and Europe There is a considerable spatial variation in development rates. // "Global wealth also increased in material terms, and during the period 1947 to 2000, average per capita incomes tripled as global GDP increased almost tenfold (from $US3 trillion to $US30 trillion)... Over 25% of the 4.5 billion people in LEDCs still have life expectancies below 40 years. More than 80 countries have a lower annual per capita income in 2000 than they did in 1990. The average income in the world’s five richest countries is 74 times the level in the world’s poorest five, the widest it has ever been. Nearly 1.3 billion people have no access to clean water. About 840 million people are malnourished." // Codrington, Stephen. The most famous pattern in development is the north-south divide. The North-South divide is the divide which separates the rich North or the developed world, from the poor South. This line of division is not as straightforward as it sounds and splits the globe into two main parts. It is also known as the Brandt Line. The "North" in this divide is regarded as being North America, Europe, Russia, Japan, Australia and New Zealand. The countries within this area are generally the more economically developed. The "South" therefore encompasses the remainder of the Southern Hemisphere, mostly consisting of LEDCs. Another possible dividing line is the Tropic of Cancer with the exceptions of Australia and New Zealand. It is critical to understand that the status of countries is far from static and the pattern is likely to become distorted with the fast development of certain southern countries, many of them NICs (Newly Industrialised Countries) including India, Thailand, Brazil, Malaysia, Mexico and others. These countries are experiencing sustained fast development on the back of growing manufacturing industries and exports. Most countries are experiencing significant increases in wealth and standard of living. However there are unfortunate exceptions to this rule. Noticeably some of the former Soviet Union countries has experienced major disruption of industry in the transition to a market economy. Many African nations have recently experienced reduced GNPs due to wars and the AIDS epidemic, including Angola, Congo, Sierra Leone and others. Arab oil producers rely very heavily on oil exports to support their GDPs so any reduction in oil’s market price can lead to rapid decreases in GNP. Countries which rely on only a few exports for much of their income are very vulnerable to changes in the market value of those commodities and are often derogatively called banana republics. Many developing countries do rely on exports of a few primary goods for a large amount of their income (coffee and timber for example), and this can create havoc when the value of these commodities drops, leaving these countries with no way to pay off their debts. Within countries the pattern is that wealth is more concentrated around urban areas than rural areas. Wealth also tends towards areas with natural resources or in areas that are involved in tertiary (service) industries and trade. This leads to a gathering of wealth around mines and monetary centres such as New York, London and Tokyo.
 * Geographic variations in development **

There are many reasons why some countries develop faster than others. They can be placed under 5 headings using the mnemonic SHEEP, but there is much overlap:
 * Causes of inequality **

The more money a country has, the more it can spend on health care, education and birth control. Some analysts consider that social traditions which discourage birth control increase birth rates and impede the economic development of LDCs. The value that societies put on work, material gain and social cohesion affects economic growth and efficiency. Also, there is the cycle of poverty which prevents further development in less developed countries without outside intervention.
 * Social **

Historically, imperial colonialism has probably had the largest influence on development in countries. It channeled resources and wealth towards Europe and North America at the expense of many African, South American and Asian colonies which did not receive reasonable prices for their goods. European colonizers built strong industries from this wealth while investing less in the development of their colonies, causing the countries. At the end of colonialism many countries were left without the social, economic or political structures that encouraged development, resulting in entrenched poverty. In many cases of post-imperialism independence, artificial borders were drawn along countries which did not reflect the desires of the local inhabitants, leading to civil wars or social instability. Other historical influences can include incompetent governments or a retention of tribal lifestyles that prevented countries from developing economically.
 * Historical **

Countries with natural resources such as iron ore, oil, & coal are likely to develop industrially more easily because they are able to exploit these resources for development. Their extraction and sale create jobs and transport systems while giving certain countries trade and political leverage over others. The resources can also earn large sums of money in trade, allowing a country to invest in other industries. Many European nations developed during the industrial revolution on the back of coal and iron industries. However, the fact that many resource-rich (oil in particular) African and Middle-Eastern nations have not developed economically while their resources are mined demonstrates that these factors are not sufficient in themselves. Often kleptocracies develop around these industries and grow very rich while investing little in the country’s population itself. Nigeria & Saudi Arabia are two examples of this. In fact the wealth generated can often help to entrench an incompetent dictatorship in power or even lead to destructive resource wars as has occurred in Africa.
 * Economic **

Natural hazards including flooding, droughts, earthquakes, volcanoes, storms, hurricanes, diseases, illnesses and pests all prevent economic development. Large natural disasters can set countries back greatly in their economic development, as in periodic flooding of Bangladesh. Volcanoes and floods can often have both positive and negative effects as they bring in fertile sediment. Areas around volcanoes and flooding deltas are often heavily populated, as in Egypt, Bangladesh and Indonesia. Diseases such as malaria which thrive in tropical climates and AIDS which is endemic in Africa prevent people from working and create an economic burden on society. Pests such as locusts reduce agricultural output and make it more difficult for a country to earn sufficient money to escape from subsistence agriculture. Reliable sources of water are necessary for productive agriculture and to a lesser extent industry. Human induced environmental problems include desertification, salinity, water pollution, land clearing and many more. Desertification is caused by poor land management removing the nutrients necessary for plant growth. It is a worldwide problem with massive consequences for the countries it affects. Salinity is caused by poor irrigation techniques. Water pollution from industry can include acids and bases, poisonous minerals and material with a high biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) which cause algal blooms. This pollution makes it more difficult for a populations to access fresh water. Logging initially brings in investment but often land with trees removed is of far reduced agricultural value and is vulnerable to desertification. Logged rain forests are especially vulnerable to mineral leeching due to high rainfall and often become worthless. As tourism is now a major source of income for most LEDCs it is necessary to care for natural resources which can bring in this long-term source of wealth.
 * Environmental **

Countries are far more likely to develop when they have stable and efficient governments that successfully macro-manage the economy and invest in national infrastructure, trade, environmental management while maintaining peace in the country.
 * Political **

·  The rule of law is necessary to make investors feel confident enough to invest their money into a country for businesses. Clear statutory laws on property ownership provide people with the opportunity to use their property for collateral on loans for capital development or sell property to achieve capital for other endeavors without abusing these rights. ·  Ensuring the rights of the workforce can mean that workers receive more money and can pull themselves out of poverty,helping the country to develop. However, it can also have the effect of encouraging multinationals to leave the country and seek other countries with fewer restrictions. Hence, efficient governments usually implement economic incentives to encourage investments in businesses and attract multinationals to the country. · <span style="font-family: 'Times New Roman'; font-style: normal; font-variant: normal; font-weight: normal; font-size: 7pt; line-height: normal; font-size-adjust: none; font-stretch: normal;"> It has been suggested that good governance is a prerequisite for economic development and most aid-donor countries now recognise that much of their money has achieved nothing due to corruption in the countries receiving aid. For this reason standards of governance are now requirements for receiving monetary aid. Unfortunately, many governments, especially in Africa, are either unable (due to instability or external factors) or unwilling (due to corruption) to help their own countries develop. Without this support, development in these countries are hindered.
 * Map that shows the 30-degree divide where (yellow) LDCS are below the 30-degree latitude mark**


 * <span style="color: rgb(0, 0, 0);">Human Development Index **


 * [[image:http://wps.prenhall.com/wps/media/objects/1331/1363278/fg09_01.gif caption="fg09_01.gif"]]

Number of Girls in School Per 100 Boys []**






 * Caitlin DiSilvestro and Jeff Chambliss**

Earths nearly 200 countries cluster at the high or low end of the continuum of development, which is the process of improving the material conditions of people through diffusion of knowledge and technology

(MDC)- Countries progressed further along the development continuum. (LDC) – Countries in an earlier stage of development.

__ECONOMIC CHALLENGES__:
For MDC it is to maintain a high level of development at a new scale. For LDC it is to find connections to the global economy by taking advantage of local diversity in skills and resources.

The Human Development Index (HDI) – created by the United Nations, recognizes that a country’s level of development is a function of all these factors.



ECONOMIC INDICATORS OF DEVELOPMENT:
Economic structure Worker productivity Access to raw materials Availability of consumer goods.

Gross domestic product - Value of the total output of goods and services produced in a country, normally during a year. the gross national (GNP) is similar to GDP except that it includes income that people earn aboard, such as a Canadian working in the United States. The lowest per capita GDP s are found in sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia. The gap between GDP between more and less developed countries has been widening during the past quarter century.


 * Country/Region || GDP Per Capita 2001 ||
 * Luxembourg || 50,00 ||
 * United States and Ireland || 30,000 ||
 * Sub-Saharan Africa, South Asia, and Southeast Asia || Less than 1,000 ||

TYPES OF JOB
Three categories: Primary (agriculture) Secondary (manufacturing) Tertiary (services)

PRODUCTIVITY -
is the value of a particular product compared to the amount of labor needed to make it. VALUE ADDED- in manufacturing is the gross value of the product minus the costs of raw materials and energy. Workers in MDCs are more productive than in LDCs.

RAW MATERIALS-
Development requires access to raw materials, such as minerals and trees that can be fashioned into useful products. The United Kingdom the first country to be transformed into a developed society late in the 18th century, had abundant supplies of coal and iron ore, the most important industrial raw materials at time because they were used to make tools. As certain raw materials become more important a country’s level of development can advance.

Social indicators of development: 1) Education and Literacy 2) Health and Welfare

Demographic Indicators of Development 1) Life Expectancy 2) Infant Mortality Rate 3) Natural Increase Rate 4) Crude Birth Rate

More Developed Regions 1) Anglo-America 2) Western Europe 3) Eastern Europe 4) Japan and South Pacific

Less Developed Regions 1) Latin America 2) East Asia 3) Southeast Asia 4) Middle East 5) South Asia 6) Sub-Saharan Africa

Level of Development varies by gender? A country’s overall level of development masks inequalities in the status of men and women. Gender inequality exits in every country of the world, according to the United Nations. In some countries women have achieved near equality with men, whereas in others the level of development of women lags far behind the level for men. Te United Nations has not found a single country in the world where its women are treated as well as men. To measure the extent of each country’s gender in equality, the United Nations has created two indexes. The Gender-Related Development Index (GDI) compares the level of development of woman with that of both sexes. the Gender Empowerment Measure (GEM) compares the ability of woman and men to participate in economic and political decision making.

The demographic transition model shows the stages that countries go through as they develop. In stages 2 and 3, the country goes through rapid change. In stages 1 and 4, they remain somewhat the same.

=<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 70%;">Agricultural labor force is the number of people who work in agriculture. This is important because a large value indicates that the country is likely an LDC dependent on agriculture, while a small value indicates that there are fewer people working in agriculture, meaning that the agriculture is more efficient. = =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 70%;"> = =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 70%;"> Calorie consumption as a percentage of daily requirement is an important index of development. People in MDCs generally consume more than 130% of their daily requirements, but most people in LDCs barely get enough to sustain themselves. The problem is worst in Africa, where most people do not eat enough. = =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 70%;"> = =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 70%;"> The Core-periphery model describes the pattern of distribution of the MDCs and LDCs. When the earth is viewed from the North Pole, the MDCs are clustered near the center of the map while the LDCs are near the edges. = =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 70%;"> = =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 70%;"> Cultural Convergence is the change in culture that occurs as diffusion of ideas and technology increases. An example is the culture of LDCs becoming more like that of their former colonial power (an MDC). = =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 70%;"> = =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 70%;"> Dependency theory states that LDCs tend to have a higher dependency ratio, the ratio of the number of people under 15 or over 64 to the number in the labor force. = =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 70%;"> = =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 70%;"> Development is the improvement in material conditions of a place as a result of diffusion of technology and knowledge. This is important because it is a main goal for most of the planet’s regions and development will help solve many problems. = =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 70%;"> = =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 70%;"> Energy consumption is an index of development. MDCs tend to consume much more energy per capita than do LDCs. This will be important in the future because as LDCs begin to industrialize, there will be a great strain on the world’s energy supply. = =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 70%;"> = =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 70%;"> Foreign direct investment is investment in the economies of LDCs by transnational corporations based in MDCs. However, all countries are not recipients of this investment. Brazil, China and Mexico were the LDCs that received most of the investment. = =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 70%;"> = =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 70%;"> Gender is an important developmental factor. A great difference in development between the genders is found primarily in LDCs, especially in the Middle East. Differences exist primarily in income and in literacy rate. = =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 70%;"> = =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 70%;"> Gross domestic product is the total value of goods and services produced in a year in a given country. The value varies greatly between MDCs and LDCs and is one of the best indicators of development. Fast growth of GDP is a major goal of all countries. = =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 70%;"> = =<span style="font-family: Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif; color: rgb(0, 0, 0); font-size: 70%;"> Gross national product is similar to GDP except that includes income that people earn abroad. =